The Battle of Mill Springs, Kentucky, Jan. 19, 1862

James N.

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Part I - The Campaign Opens
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The Battle of Mill Springs, Kentucky, is perhaps one of the least understood and appreciated of the entire war, and one that had lasting significance for the fortunes of the young Confederacy. As the very first important Union victories in the Western Theater at the time it was celebrated in prints like the Currier & Ives above, depicting the Terrific bayonet charge of the 9th Ohio Volunteers, a German regiment from Cincinnati, and the total defeat of the Rebel army under Genl. Zollicoffer by the Gallant Soldiers of the West. Part of the confusion is due to the fact that Mill Springs, today the accepted name, was also known variously as Fishing Springs, Somerset, and Logan's Crossroads for nearby locations and terrain features.

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Map by Hal Jesperson @civilwarmaps.com

The map above indicates the geographic significance of the tiny battle; the Confederate force at right labeled Crittenden was the anchor of Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston's line which stretched entirely across the state of Kentucky from the bastion of Columbus in the west to the Cumberland Gap in the East, with Johnston's headquarters near the center in Bowling Green. Once the Confederate right was defeated and driven back at Mill Springs, it was followed quickly by Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's advance into Tennessee and capture of Forts Henry and Donelson in early February. This collapsed Johnston's line, causing the evacuation of Columbus, Bowling Green, and the entire state of Kentucky, without which President Abraham Lincoln said the war could not be won.

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The immediate problem leading to the pivotal little battle occurred when newly-minted Confederate Brig. Gen. Felix Zollicoffer took command in the Cumberland Gap area and decided against orders to advance into eastern Kentucky to the Cumberland River where he thought he would be protected during the winter months that normally saw little activity. Unfortunately, he chose to cross the river where he established winter quarters for his brigade of Tennessee and Mississippi infantry at Beech Grove above.

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Today, at the Beech Grove campsite archeological excavations have revealed the shallow dugouts and pits that formed the bases for Zollicoffer's winter huts as seen above; the adjacent nearby woodlands contain remains of the mile-long covering earthworks built to protect the encampment, as described on the marker below.

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Zollicoffer established his own headquarters in a small log cabin which stood on the site below along the road toward Logan's Crossroads a scant few miles to the north. He expected to be left alone here until the winter weather improved and campaign season would begin; unfortunately for him, fate chose otherwise.

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Felix K. Zollicoffer, at left below, was a man of little military experience, having briefly served as a lieutenant of Tennessee Volunteers during the Seminole uprising of 1836, but was an important figure in Tennessee politics. He had served as state comptroller and state senator in the 1850's when this photo of him was made. He was a typical example of an early war Southern political general whose influence as newspaper owner, editor, and Whig politician was expected to help keep the inhabitants of East Tennessee who were strong Unionists pacified and securely within the Confederate fold. His rash move into Kentucky had some sound military reasoning behind it, but quickly drew the attention and disapproval of Johnston who sent Maj. Gen. George B. Crittenden to supersede Zollicoffer.

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Unfortunately, Crittenden, seen above at right in a wartime photo, was little better suited than Zollicoffer to deal with the rapidly deteriorating situation. Crittenden was a native of Kentucky and a brother of Union Maj. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden and a graduate of West Point who had served as an officer in the U. S. Regiment of Mounted Rifles and was brevetted major for gallant conduct in the Mexican War. Remaining in the army following the war, he had attained the rank of lieutenant colonel prior to his resignation in anticipation of Kentucky's secession, an act he likely soon regretted. Nonetheless, as a career officer of high rank, he was promoted to major general on Nov. 9, 1861, and sent to East Tennessee to take command.

Next, Part II - The Union Advance
 
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Part II - The Union Advance Forces the Confederates to Attack and Zollicoffer Falls
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The death of Felix Zollicoffer early in the battle is the incident that Mill Springs is best remembered for, due to the many Union prints like the woodcut above, but actually played a relatively small part in the outcome of the engagement.

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It had been discovered by the Confederates that the aggressive Federal commanders in the West like Ulysses S. Grant at Belmont, Missouri, and now George H. Thomas in Kentucky had no intention of merely sitting out the winter months waiting for spring. Thomas had begun to combine his small force to the north of Zollicoffer at Beech Grove into a potential striking force. Although Crittenden wanted Zollicoffer to pull back, at least across the Cumberland River, the nearness of the Federals seemed to invite a spoiling attack before Thomas' three brigades joined completely. Crittenden put his two brigades under Zollicoffer and another Tennessean, Brig. Gen. William H. Carroll on the road leading to Logan's Crossroads, now the village of Nancy, Kentucky. After a march of eight miles and short of the crossroads the Confederates ran into Thomas' cavalry pickets in the early morning of Jan. 19 at Timmy's Branch above, alerting the Federals to their danger.

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Unfortunately for Crittenden, the assembly of Thomas' command was almost complete although it was still somewhat scattered. The small brigade of Col. Mahlon Manson was closest to the front and formed line across the road looking south-southeast as seen above; the apparent "cemetery" is only a group of memorial stones dedicated to fallen Confederates and does not mark any actual graves. Zollicoffer's men approached along the road in the distance; when scattered firing broke out, the nearsighted Zollicoffer thought his men had somehow come under friendly fire and rode forward accompanied by a single aide to investigate.

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Manson had formed his small brigade along a fence line looking southeast across open fields above; it should be remembered that in January all the trees were bare, and the ground was covered with mud from recent rains which made off-road marching a slow and difficult process. Manson hoped he would soon be joined by Thomas' other two brigades which were coming up in his rear, so when his men saw movement in their front through the mist and fog they couldn't be sure of the identity of the approaching riders.

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When Zollicoffer rode up to the Union line and told its colonel to cease firing, because he was wearing a dark rain slicker in the morning mist and drizzle he wasn't recognized at first. It was only when his aide who was a short distance behind him realized they were Federals and foolishly fired at them that return fire felled the Confederate commander, killing him instantly. After the battle, his body was recovered from beneath a tree which died only fairly recently; fortunately after the war the spot had been marked by the monument above.

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Zollicoffer's death no doubt rattled and may have demoralized some of his men, but the battle was only getting underway and Crittenden was on the field to take charge. He began an effort to turn the Union left flank by sending the 20th Tennessee and 15th Mississippi along a ravine in the background above leading past Manson's left.

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The scene above as it appeared to attacking Confederates struggling through the muddy ravine to assault the Federal line behind the rail fence on the horizon; when they reached it a hand-to-hand struggle ensued as described on the marker below.

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There are many maps like the two above depicting this small battle but as in so many cases they create a false impression by showing the action occurring simultaneously; those below are much better, the one at left showing Crittenden's attempt to turn Manson's left along the ravine, while the one at right shows the reinforced Federal counterattack that eventually swept the Confederates from the field.

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Maps by Hal Jesperson @civilwarmaps.com

Next, Part III - The Confederates retreat back to their camps
 
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Part III - A Reinforced Union Army Sweeps the Field
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Since little else was going on at the time, the Northern press made much of the little victory at Mill Springs giving it abundant coverage, both verbal and pictorial, like in this double-page spread from Harper's Weekly.

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Union commanding Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas soon arrived on the field and directed reinforcements against the exposed Confederate flank that was attempting to turn his own. According to the historical marker above he remained here near the center of his line during the battle.

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Federal commanders at Mill Springs included Brig. Gen.George Henry Thomas at center above, flanked by Col. Mahlon D. Manson at right and Col. Robert H. McCook at left. Mill Springs proved to be a positive windfall for Thomas, who as a native Virginian might have been otherwise passed over in the political climate of the day but for his stellar victory here. McCook was one of the Union's fourteen famous Fighting McCooks and one of four generals from that family; unfortunately he was killed by Confederate cavalry later that year while commanding his brigade as a part of the Army of the Ohio. Manson also had a bad 1862, trounced at the Battle of Richmond, Kentucky in August and again handled roughly at the Battle of Perryville in October.

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Union reinforcements began to extend Thomas' line east and west of the road axis, outflanking both ends of Crittenden's line; soon the Confederates were driven back to the position occupied by their lone battery of Tennessee artillery commanded by Captain Rutledge above. In the background at left center can be seen the hill where Zollicoffer fell and the battle began with the old road at far left.


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The Confederate line collapsed leading to a semi-rout as depicted by the Northern press above, though Crittenden's second brigade under Brig. Gen. William H. Carroll "sustained comparatively light losses and retired in good order" according to historian Ezra Warner. A short distance from the main battlefield, Last Stand Hill below marks the site of the final shots of the engagement.

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A small log farmhouse stood on the site below a little farther along the route along which the Confederates advanced and retreated and served as a field hospital during and after the battle.

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The map above from the Civil War Trust shows the Moulden's Hill/Beech Grove area where Zollicoffer had established his headquarters and winter encampment and indicates the impending action there following the Confederate retreat. Thomas arrived here the day following the battle near Logan's Crossroads and prepared to assault Crittenden's weakly held line, only to discover the Confederates had ferried their men across the rain-swollen Cumberland and then burned their transport ship, the Noble Ellis as described on the Kentucky State historical marker below.

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The Cumberland River below is now larger than in 1862 due to being dammed and the formation of modern Lake Cumberland as can be seen on the map above. Thomas was delayed in his pursuit but little and followed the retreating Confederates to the nearby town of Mill Springs where he wrote the dispatch describing his victory, which then bore the name of that location. The Confederate army had survived although having to abandon their artillery, wagons, supplies, and winter camp, but Crittenden felt it best to retreat all the way back to Tennessee, thereby leaving Johnston's eastern flank turned and wide open for further Federal advances and Kentucky firmly in Union hands, soon to be followed by most of Tennessee.

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The loss of Kentucky spelt doom for the career of George Crittenden; when Confederate General Braxton Bragg replaced P. G. T. Beauregard (who had replaced Albert S. Johnston, killed at the Battle of Shiloh) as commander in the West, he brought charges against both Crittenden and Carroll for dereliction of duty, though unrelated directly to the loss of this battle. Both generals were considered to be political generals by Bragg; the hapless Carroll, who seems to have merely been swept up by events, resigned his commission and joined his family who had emigrated to Canada when their home in Tennessee fell and never returned to the United States. Crittenden soldiered on, resigning his commission as major general but continuing to serve in subordinate administrative positions. Ironically, Felix Zollicoffer, who was largely responsible for the disaster, was regarded as an early Confederate Hero and Martyr to The Cause.

Next, Part IV - Visiting the area today.
 
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Part IV - Touring the Battlefield Today
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Above, this cannon standing guard outside the Mill Springs Visitor Center in Nancy, Kentucky, is near the site of Federal artillery position of the 9th Ohio during the battle, as can be seen from the Civil War Trust map below. The battle site and adjoining land remains rural in nature, and despite the relatively recent attempt to preserve and protect it from development, there has been almost no encroachment other than scattered housing and the development of Logan's Crossroads into the modern village of Nancy, named for Nancy Logan. As can also be seen, most of the battlefield has been secured here and much of Zollicoffer's winter campsite at the Moulden's Hill/Beech Grove area as well.

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Mill Springs National Cemetery
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The Battle of Mill Springs or Logan's Crossroads was a fairly small affair involving only a few thousand men on either side. The 39 Federal dead were buried here near the crossroads in what became Mill Springs National Cemetery and were later joined by some of the 207 wounded in the fight whose injuries proved mortal, as well as other fatalities from nearby skirmishes; however, like many National Cemeteries today, it has been greatly expanded by the addition of veterans from Twentieth and Twenty-First Century wars as well. Most of the graves seen here are not from the Civil War.

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Confederate Mass Grave
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Bodies of the 125 or so Confederate dead were gathered after the battle and buried in a common grave near where Zollicoffer had fallen during the morning attack and where they lay thickest near the rail fence. They are marked by the stone above; the mound below contains their remains. The bodies of Zollicoffer and one of his subordinates were returned to the Confederates and today he lies buried in Nashville. In addition to these, there had been 309 wounded and another hundred captured.

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Mill Springs Visitor Center and Museum

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Adjacent to the National Cemetery and separated from it by a low stone wall is the relatively new Visitor Center and museum which is a good place to begin a visit to the somewhat far-flung sites pictured here. There are exhibits and a very helpful driving tour handout correlated to the several "official" tour stops. The single greatest change to the landscape has been the creation of larger and wider Lake Cumberland from what had been the free-flowing Cumberland River, necessitating a wide detour if anyone wishes to travel all the way to Mill Springs where Thomas ended his pursuit but otherwise essentially nothing happened. We chose to omit this part of the tour, but anyone wishing to see the few sites there are referred to the thread by @Buckeye Bill

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The museum relies heavily on several rather bizarre lifesize "dioramas" such as these; above, the interior of a Confederate winter hut. The one below, made up from department store mannequins (!) represents the hand-to-hand struggle at the rail fence.

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The more normal cased exhibits above display the usual collection of period arms and artifacts, the largest of which is the ten-pounder Parrott rifled cannon and its carriage and limber below.

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Many years ago, we did a reenactment at Mill Springs itself, even attacked up the hill where the 9th Ohio was holding behind the fence. I was with the Confederates and tried to get as close to the fence as legally possible before falling back.

My introduction to this battlefield was a tactical event I've written about here before: https://civilwartalk.com/threads/tactical-at-nancy-mill-springs-kentucky-summer-1978.134466/ Unfortunately, at that time in the 1970's very little of the land had been preserved, so we "fought" over hilly farmland looking much as the actual battle must have been. I have no distinct memory of seeing any "historical" sites, other than perhaps a Kentucky roadside marker; I don't believe we even found the tiny plot containing the Confederate mass grave and Zollicoffer monument, nor the National Cemetery.
 
A very nice thread, James! The Mill Springs Battlefield is in my all-time top ten list of American Civil War sites. I had the opportunity to visit Felix Zollicoffer's grave at the Old City Cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee (2014).

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Thanks, Bill; I didn't remember whether Zollicoffer was in the larger Mount Olivet Cemetery with all the other Confederates or not. I'd visited there many years ago when I went to The Hermitage but somehow missed the Old City Cemetery.
 
I have never been to this battlefield. Thanks James N. for the excellent tour and the many photos. I thoroughly enjoyed the visit. It does sound very interesting. I will have to find a book about the battle. Thanks again.
My pleasure; unfortunately, this small battle, as important and far-reaching though it was, gets short shrift in most histories of the war. Even Shelby Foote accords it only bare-bones coverage, possibly because of the combatants only the stolid George Thomas went on to other deeds, while all the others or their careers were short-lived. I relied mainly on Wikipedia and the short biographical entries in Ezra Warner's Generals in Blue and Generals in Gray. The best way to understand the events here is by visiting the battlefield and visitor center, and after doing so I had a much clearer and more complete idea of what had occurred.
 
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I meant to discuss in the text another of the problems encountered at Mill Springs/Logan's Crossroads by the Confederates, as depicted in the print above by artist/historian George Woodbridge in a series he did in 1961 for LIFE Magazine. As can be seen in the Civil War Trust map above, Zollicoffer's leading regiments that began Crittenden's attack were the 15th Mississippi and 20th Tennessee. I don't know about the Mississippians, but the Tennesseans were armed with smoothbore flintlock muskets that hadn't yet been converted to the percussion system. Flintlocks are notoriously unreliable in foggy, damp, and drizzly or rainy weather like occurred the night before during their march and early morning of the battle, but it wasn't until they were actually engaged on the firing line that they discovered to their horror that their weapons wouldn't fire! Combined with the initial confusion following the death of Zollicoffer this severely hampered the onset of the Confederate assault. The 20th Tennessee were withdrawn from the front line and placed in reserve where they essentially contributed nothing to the battle then in progress.
 
Many years ago, we did a reenactment at Mill Springs itself, even attacked up the hill where the 9th Ohio was holding behind the fence. I was with the Confederates and tried to get as close to the fence as legally possible before falling back.
The 9th Ohio was an interesting unit that had been raised purposely by its first colonel, Robert McCook, from the large community of German immigrants then residing in Cincinnati. McCook was said to have believed that many of them had had previous military experience in the Wars of German Unification or the unsuccessful Revolutions of 1848, so thought they would provide at least the cadre around which to form the regiment. He was proven right, and it was said that of the Ohio Volunteer Regiments being formed at Camp Dennison in the summer of 1861 his was the best-drilled, though all commands (in German) had to be given or transmitted by his lieutenant colonel, August Willich, himself later a general. By the time of the battle here McCook was commanding his brigade which included the 9th Ohio Regiment.
 
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This weekend marks the brief but decisive campaign that was largely responsible for the Confederate loss of Kentucky and the rise of Gen. George H. Thomas; above, another version of the death of the hapless Felix Zollicoffer.
 
Probably General Thomas' first important victory.
Good pictures. I remember reading in the Official Records some months ago about the campaign of Zollicoffer leading up to this battle. He was very confident he would succeed, and had straddled the river near the border for exiting. The Big Sandy came into play, and Zollicoffer had advanced past that crossing, and where the camp and his other troops were busy near the Cumberland were separated somewhat, but due to overconfidence, attacked, defeated, and driven back into Tennessee. My memory is vague on the full details. It was a ferry crossing on the river, and I didn't know the confederates moved into Kentucky but for one purpose, and that was to attack.
I really enjoyed the thread. Thanks.
Lubliner.
 
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